Moreover, both systems share a similar concept of creation, considering reality to devolve from a primordial state of void. Both systems are ecological or promote naturalism; Daoism is ecological in the sense of its trying to return to the natural state which precedes human intervention, a state devoid of desires and egotism. Similarly, Yoga aspires to deconstruct the various elements comprising human personality, and return to the natural state of the puruṣa separated from the prakṛti. This aspiration for naturalism also has its ethical implications in the field of action; Daoism promotes a sort of natural action called wuwei, whereas yoga promotes a similar natural notion called niṣkāma karma. Both systems share a similar epistemological idea, by considering Knowledge to obstruct a direct perception of reality: Yoga considers thought or cittavṛtti to obscure knowledge, or to prevent a direct perception of reality, and Daoism maintains a similar notion. Both systems promote sense control, stopping the senses, including celibacy. At last, both systems promote individuality or focus on the Individual: as opposed to Confucianism, Daoism focuses on the individual and not on society and similarly, as opposed to the Vedic tradition, yoga rejects society and focuses on the individual. Apparently, there are many similarities; this paper will now look into the topic of creation.
We shall first cite Daoism in brief and then describe the Yoga and Sāṅkhya theory of creation in more detail. The Daoist concept of creation is a type of "downward evolution"; In other words, creation descends into the world downward from the non- material spiritual principle into the world of variegatedness. As such, the ultimate foundation of world is considered as an "indistinct,"inexplicable spiritual entity or substance which at the time of the emergence of the world diversifies into the natural phenomena. Laozi says:
The Dao generated one;
One generated two;
Two generated three;
Three generated the ten thousand things.
The ten thousand things,
Carrying yin and embracing yang,
Used the empty vapor to achieve harmony (Daodejing 42).
In the first phase of non-being, the Dao generated hun dun qi, the vapor of chaos, also known as chong xu qi , the empty vapor which constituted one. One, being unable to generate things, split into two: yin and yang or heaven and earth, which constituted two. By using empty vapor as a medium, yin and yang blended with each other into harmony, and the three of them, yin, yang and the empty vapor, generated the ten thousand things" (Jha 2014, 21). As mentioned, from the Dao comes one, from one comes two, from two comes three and all other things follow.
The theory underlying the Yoga and Sāṅkhya schools considers nature to consist of three qualities or strands, called guṇas; the three qualities are named sattva representing goodness and transparency, rajas representing passion and desire, and tamas representing ignorance, indolence and darkness. The guṇas have a major role to play in the Sāṅkhya-Yoga theory of creation, which is similar to the Daoist theory in some ways. Both systems consider creation to represent a process of evolution having its source in a spiritual state of void, expanding into the variety which represents this world. As such, the metaphysics of the Sāṅkhya system may be considered; Sāṅkhya is notable for its theory of evolution and its reduction of all that exists into the two fundamental categories of puruṣa and prakṛti. Prakṛti is composed of three constituents called "guṇas", and is in a potential and neutral state which is activated and actualized by the puruṣa. The evolution of the unconscious prakṛti can take place only through the presence of the conscious puruṣa; as such, the presence of the puruṣa excites the activity of prakṛti, and thus upsetting the equilibrium of the guṇas in prakṛti, passively starts the evolutionary process. The union of the puruṣa and the prakṛti is compared to a lame man of good vision mounted on the shoulders of a blind man of sure foot. (Radhakrishnan and Moore 1989, 424). The prakṛti first evolves into the "mahat" and from it evolves "buddhi"; the "ahaṅkāra" is the principle of individuation, and from its sattva guṇa aspect arise the manas, the five organs of perception and the five organs of action. From the ahaṅkāra's tamo guṇa aspect arise the five fine or subtle elements known as tannmātras, and from these arise the five gross elements known as the mahābhūtas. The rajo guṇa14 acts as an energiser to support this evolution, and thus creation represents the unfolding of the phenomenal world from the original prakṛti, whereas dissolution is the world's absorption back into prakṛti. The individual is not the body, either gross or subtle, rather the eternal conscious self, the pure spirit who is the puruṣa. The subtle and gross body is the instrument of consciousness but is unconscious in itself. The subtle body is composed of buddhi, ahaṅkāra and manas and these three combined comprise the inner organ which accounts for the various types of subjective and psychic experiences. At the time of death the gross body alone is relinquished whereas the subtle-psychological body accompanies the puruṣa to the next body, and only at the stage of final aloofness is the subtle body entirely given up. As there are many such conscious selves, both in the state of bondage as well as in the liberated state, and as there is a fundamental distinction between the conscious puruṣa and unconcsious prakṛti, Sāṅkhya is both pluralistic and dualistic. As opposed to the puruṣa which may be designated as the "essential self", the term "empirical self" may be applied to the human being; in that human condition, the puruṣa identifies with its gross and subtle bodies and is deluded to perceive itself to be thinking, feeling and acting, when actually it is only the guṇas who are activating the human being. In general, the term guṇa has three meanings, namely "quality","rope" and "not primary". The guṇas, however, are substances and not mere qualities; this is so as in Sāṅkhya philosophy there is no separate existence of qualities; it holds that each and every unit of quality is but a unit of substance (Dasgupta 2000, 243). The guṇas are thus subtle entities,which characterize every phenomenon, gross or subtle, comprise prakṛti and bind the puruṣa; in the stage of bondage, the puruṣa agitates prakṛti and thus the guṇas are set in motion, whereas in the stage of salvation the puruṣa achieves kaivalya which is a state of aloofness and distinction from prakṛti. The state of embodiment is only apparent as the experience of repeated births is a mere false impression created by matter obscuring the puruṣa's purity. Non-theistic Sāṅkhya resembles Jainism but is more radical in its conception of the individual spirit; the latter, called puruṣa (human person) or jña (knower), is never really but only apparently embodied. Hence, it is never really affected by matter nor tainted in any way by activity which is the exclusive province of unconscious matter (pradhāna or prakṛti). Its illusory feeling of repeated embodiments in the sorrowful round of births is due to its own reflection in the mirror-like density of matter. It is a mere fallacy which the Sāṅkhya teaching suffices to dispel, apart from any asceticism, by the finality of its demonstration of every puruṣa's purity. Whenever this truth is grasped by one's consciousness, the puruṣa at once recovers the untroubled awareness of his isolation (kaivalya), and becomes pure, unrelated and serene (De Smet, 1974, 62—63). It seems that Sāṅkhya resembles Vedānta at least to some extent, in so far as it aspires to dispel the illusory feeling of repeated embodiments in the sorrowful round of births. Tradition ascribes the authorship of the Sāṅkhya system to Kapila, and the earliest text on Sāṅkhya philosophy is the Sāṅkhya-kārikā of Īśvarakṛṣṇa, which begins as follows: "From torment by three-fold misery arises the inquiry into the means of terminating it". (Radhakrishnan and Moore 1989, 426).Although the classical Sāṅkhya of Īśvarakṛṣṇa appears to be non-theistic or even atheistic, (Sharma 2001, 4) it may well be that older Sāṅkhya strains in the Epic and Upaniṣadic literature support a theistic doctrine, and these theistic strains continued throughout the Purāṇic tradition, as well as in the Bhagavad gītā. However, although Sāṅkhya can at times support a theistic system, the notion of a Supreme Person is a nonessential component, the essential components being the total distinction between puruṣa and prakṛti, their union from which the world evolves, and their separation at the perfectional stage. The Yoga system is quite close to the Sāṅkhya system in its metaphysics, but is distinct in that it includes not only theory but a practical side which is a method meant for the liberation of the puruṣa from prakṛti. The method is based upon eight transformational stages and resembles a ladder by which one may raise himself step by step; the transformation is an internal one, and it represents involution, i.e. a process by which the puruṣa gradually separates itself from prakṛti until it reaches aloofness or complete isolation. In summary, the Sāṅkhya system defines personhood in terms of isolation; the more one is able to recover himself from the covering of prakṛti, the more fulfilled a person he is. The more progress one is able to make, both theoretically and practically in the isolation process, the higher level of personhood is expressed by him. Complete isolation or kaivalya represents the stage of perfection.
In many ways the Sāṅkhya-Yoga view resembles the Daoist view, in that expansion is from the void or non-existent into the world of variety. In both systems, there is a non-material reality preceding the existing worlds, and creation is evolved gradually, from the spiritual to the subtle, and from the subtle to the gross. In this process, the qualities of nature, i.e. Yin and Yang and the three guṇas respectively play a central role, and as such they may deserve a closer look.
Ithamar Theodor教授在第三屆生命與國學高峰論壇發表主題演講
Having described the Sāṅkhya-Yoga view of creation, we shall now try look closer at the guṇas and draw a connection between them and the Daoist categories of Yin and Yang. The three guṇas comprise human nature, and they bind the soul to mind and matter, or to the subtle and gross bodies. As opposed to the soul which remains steady and unchanging, the guṇas constantly interact among themselves, and unite in various combinations; as such, sometimes goodness prevails, sometimes passion and sometimes darkness. The three guṇas not only interact with each other rather they balance each other and a variety of combinations are created. In general, the rajas guṇa tends to be over active while the tamas guṇa tends to be the opposite, i.e. over passive; the sattva guṇa paves a path which may be considered a kind of a "middle way", and as such it acts as a balancing force. This balanced position does not merely offer an average or a sum total of the other two forces, rather it opens the gate, so to speak, to spirituality and enlightenment.
As the guṇas are so dominant and govern every aspect of life, this world is sometimes called "the world of the guṇas". As the three guṇas comprise human nature, they are reflected through each and every thought, word or deed. As such, the way one thinks, speaks and acts reflects upon the combination of the conditioning guṇas. This concept offers a unique division of human and even non-human existence which groups together various aspects of life, such as various psychological components, activity and adherence to duty, social grouping, eating habits and cosmological divisions. The guṇa of goodness is characterized by knowledge and happiness, and adherence to duty for the sake of duty; it represents the intellectual social group or the Brahmins or priests and, cosmologically, leads to the higher planets. The guṇa of passion is characterized by desire and attachment, and with adherence to duty for the sake of its fruits or for some ulterior gain. When mixed with a larger amount of goodness it represents the ruling class, and when mixed with a somewhat lesser amount of goodness, it represents the mercantile and farming class; cosmologically it leads to the middle planets. The guṇa of ignorance is characterized by darkness, indolence and madness and it involves the negligence of duty; it is more dominant among the productive social class and cosmologically it leads to the lower planets.
There has been a tendency in western scholarship of the guṇas, to dichotomize them into "good" and "bad". In other words, sometimes there is a reading of the sattva guṇa as being good in ethical, ontological and epistemological terms, whereas the rajas guṇa and the tamas guṇa are described as diametrically opposed or being similarly bad. There is no doubt a hierarchy underlying the Guṇa Doctrine and assuming that rajas is higher than tamas, and that sattva is higher than both.
However, sometimes this hierarchical structure was perhaps over dichotomized, so to speak, under the influence of Neo Hindu trends, expressing some apologetic tendencies towards Western ethical notions. It is to be noted that beside the hierarchical aspects of the Guṇa Doctrine, it has a balanced aspect as well.
Accordingly, the guṇas constantly interact among themselves and their interaction creates a kind of a natural balance underlying the whole of existence. Perhap this comparative Indo-Chinese study will help to emphasize these balanced aspects of the Guṇa Doctrine.
In looking for the Chinese counterpart, it seems that the terms yin 陰 and yang 陽 are close in many ways to the guṇas, in that they are explanatory categories characterizing the relationships and interactions among immediate concrete and particular phenomena and things of the world. Yin and yang describe the relationships that are constitutive of unique particulars, and provide a vocabulary for capturing various subtleties. The complementary nature of the opposition captured in this pairing expresses the mutuality, interdependence, diversity, and creative efficacy of the dynamic relationships that are deemed immanent in and valorize the world. The full range of difference in the world is deemed explicable through this pairing (Peerenboom & Ames 1995, 985-986). Yin and yang are terms used to express a contrastive relationship that obtains between two or more things; yin is the shady side of a hill, and yang is the sunny side. Yin is represented by darkness, cold, contraction, passivity and fading, whereas yang is represented by light, heat, expansion, activity and growth (Ron 2006, 37). Among the guṇas, it seems that the two guṇas of rajas and tamas, roughly translated as passion and ignorance, best correspond to the terms yin and yang, in that rajas tends to be active and restless, whereas tamas tends to be dark and obscure:
When rajas is dominant, greed, vigorous activity, venture, restlessness and yearning are born. O descendant of Kuru, when tamas is dominant, obscurity, inertia, insanity and confusion are born (Theodor 2010, 112).
The yin-yang vocabulary describes how things hang together in their dynamic and always changing relationships. Importantly, these relationships that define things are intrinsic and constitutive (Ames 2003, 846). Given that yin-yang must always refer to a particular time and place, such correlations are always unstable. In fact, the Book of Changes appeals to yin-yang as a way of articulating the process of ceaseless change, succession and alteration within which the human experience is played out (Ames 2003, 846). The Bg offers a similar idea according to which there is a constant tension between the three guṇas; as such, at different times different guṇas prevail:
Sattva prevails when it overcomes rajas and tamas; similarly rajas prevails by overcoming sattva and tamas, and tamas – by overcoming sattva and rajas (Theodor 2010, 112).
The yin-yang vocabulary seems to be universal and timeless; the Bg carries another similar idea according to which the transformations of the guṇas are beginningless:
Know material nature and the conscious entity to be both without beginning; know too that the transformations as well as the guṇas originate from material nature (Theodor 2010, 107).
Also, the guṇas themselves are universal and all encompassing:
There is no being neither on earth, nor among the gods in heaven, free from these three guṇas born of material nature (Theodor 2010, 136).
Apparently, a process of ceaseless changes between the guṇas takes place, which is rather similar to the way the yin and yang constantly correlate. Accordingly, nature is characterized by unlimited combinations of the guṇas, or alternatively of yin-yang, and these determine, categorize and constitute the natural world and human psychology.
Having discussed some characters of nature, we shall briefly look at their ethical implications, or the mode of action implied by this worldview. The Way (dao 道) has ethical implications deriving from its original meaning as a road or a path, and these are enriched to mean the universal Way applicable and existent in every corner of the universe. The universal way is understood to originate from Heaven and Earth and therefore be the source of the meaning and value of human life (Yao 2000, 139—140). Understood as such, the Way is the foundation of a harmonious universe, a peaceful society and a good life, and without it the transformation of the universe would break down, human society would fall into chaos, and the state would weaken and collapse (Yao 2000, 140). Translated into the realm of human action, the term wu-wei 無為signifies a natural mode of action which is action in harmony with the Dao or the way (Littlejohn 2011, 65). The way of higher virtue, by contrast, starts with the awareness of the fundamental nature of reality and the human being. It is based on spontaneous unself-conscious and non-intervening activity (wuwei) permitting the immediate recognition of the real nature of oneself and the cosmos. Adepts only received it by direct transmission (shouzhuan) from master to disciple (Pregadio and Skar 2000, 481). The way is not distinct from human beings and cannot be separated from human life, since it exists in daily life, in ordinary behavior and in mundane matters (Yao 2000, 140). This is of course very much similar to the state of sattva guṇa or goodness, which balances the two other lower guṇas, which offers an ethical or humanistic path leading to immanent spirituality, and which, on a cosmological level, offers a state of prosperity, harmony and peace.
Since the nature of the Dao is to be self-actualizing, creative and spontaneous, so also these values have come to be identified as core values of the Daoist tradition. The Daode jing commonly translated classic of the Way and Virtue must be ranked as one of the most important classics in world literature. It also possess a strong challenge to interpreters, past and present, in China and beyond. Known also as the Laozi on account of its reputed author, the Daodejing is the foundational classic of Daoism, taken broadly to include all forms of Daoist thought and practice. In as much as Daoism form a pillar of Chinese culture, the influence of the Daode jing is pervasive (Chan 2000, 1). According to the Dao de jing, the way in which one arrives at this state of naturalness is through the principle of wuwei. Wuwei can be translated literally as non-action, but in fact means "action as non-action", that is "actions that appear or are felt as almost nothing". It is through this type of action that the work of human beings is carried out, and the Dao is able to flourish in the world (Miller 2003, 140).
The way to be with Dao is through non-action (wuwei) and naturalness (ziran). This does not mean doing nothing, becoming like a vegetable, or being totally spontaneous, without any planning whatsoever. Rather, it means letting go of egoistic concerns–what Daoists call "passions and desires"–in favor of finding a sense of where life, nature and the world are headed. It means to abstain from forceful and interfering measures that cause tensions and disrupsion in favor of gentleness adaptation, and ease. Then one can attain success, contentment, and long life. As the text says:
Act on things and you will ruin them.
Grasp for things and you will lose them.
Therefore the sage acts with non-action and has no ruin,
Let's go of grasping and has no loss. (Chapter 64, Kohn 2009, 24). The Bhg promotes a mode of action quite similar to the Daoist wuwei, called niṣkāma karma. Niṣkāma karma is generally translated as action or work without desire for its fruits. Similar to the Daoist concept of wuwei, niṣkāma karma is based upon a pure and natural mode of action, where one acts according to his nature in a sattvic way. Niṣkāma karma is grounded in the the Guṇa Doctrine which has notable ethical characteristics, as it aspires to elevate or sublimate one's deeds and character, and bring them to the level of sattva or goodness. The Guṇa Doctrine's ethics follow a simple principle, according to which every action could possibly be performed in three states or modes: in goodness or sattva, in passion or rajas, and in ignorance or tamas. Out of these three states the first mode is recommended and represents the state of niṣkāma karma, the second state is worse and the third state is the worst. The Bg offers a variety of examples and one such textual example will be presented, looking into the subtleties of charity:
Charity is held to be of the nature of goodness when the gift is bestowed upon one who has not performed a prior service, with a sense of duty and conviction that it ought to be given, and when offered at the proper place, at the proper time and to a worthy person. But when charity is given in expectation of some gain, with its fruits in mind or offered grudgingly, that gift is considered to be of the nature of passion. That charity given at the wrong time and place, to an unworthy person, without paying respect and with contempt is said to be of the nature of darkness (Theodor 2010, 127).
We may not offer a commentary on this, as it seems that the principle is self-evident; however, suffice it to say that this principle of sublimating one's activities through adherence to the sattva guṇa or mode of goodness, and turning one's actions into niṣkāma karma, is The central principle underlying the doctrine of action for which the Bg is famous for, and that this indeed offers a sense of humanistic spirituality, i.e. a notion of spirituality attained through a pure performance of one's humanistic action. As such, the ethics of both systems, the system of Yoga and the system of Daoism, culminate in a pure mode of action called niṣkāma karma and wuwei respectively.
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