Similarly, the past of P can be defined as the set of all events from which it is possible to reach the event P traveling at or below the speed of light. It is thus the set of events that can affect what happens at P. The events that do not lie in the future or past of P are said to lie in the elsewhere of P(Fig. 2.5). What happens at such events can neither affect nor be affected by what happens at P. For example, if the sun were to cease to shine at this very moment, it would not affect things on earth at the present time because they would be in the elsewhere of the event when the sun went out (Fig. 2.6).
We would know about it only after eight minutes, the time it takes light to reach us from the sun. Only then would events on earth lie in the future light cone of the event at which the sun went out. Similarly, we do not know what is happening at the moment farther away in the universe: the light that we see from distant galaxies left them millions of years ago, and in the case of the most distant object that we have seen, the light left some eight thousand million years ago. Thus, when we look at the universe, we are seeing it as it was in the past.
If one neglects gravitational effects, as Einstein and Poincare did in 1905, one has what is called the special theory of relativity. For every event in space-time we may construct alight cone (the set of all possible paths of light in space-time emitted at that event), and since the speed of light is the same at every event and in every direction, all the light cones will be identical and will all point in the same direction. The theory also tells us that nothing can travel faster than light. This means that the path of any object through space and time must be represented by a line that lies within the light cone at each event on it (Fig. 2.7). The special theory of relativity was very successful in explaining that the speed of light appears the same to all observers (as shown by the Michelson-Morley experiment) and in describing what happens when things move at speeds close to the speed of light. However, it was inconsistent with the Newtonian theory of gravity, which said that objects attracted each other with a force that depended on the distance between them. This meant that if one moved one of the objects, the force on the other one would change instantaneously. Or in other gravitational effects should travel with infinite velocity, instead of at or below the speed of light, as the special theory of relativity required. Einstein made a number of unsuccessful attempts between 1908 and 1914 to find a theory of gravity that was consistent with special relativity. Finally, in 1915, he proposed what we now call the general theory of relativity.
Emit 发出
Instantaneously 即刻地
类似地，P的过去可被定义为下述的所有事件的集合，从这些事件可以等于或小于光速的速度运动到达事件P。这样，它就是能影响发生在P的东西的所有事件的集合。不处于P的未来或过去的事件被称之为处于P的他处（图2.5）。在这种事件处所发生的东西既不能影响发生在P的东西，也不受发生在P的东西的影响。例如，假定太阳就在此刻停止发光，它不会对此刻的地球发生影响，因为地球的此刻是在太阳熄灭这一事件的光锥之外（图2.6）。我们只能在8分钟之后才知道这一事件，这是光从太阳到达我们所花的时间。只有到那时候，地球上的事件才在太阳熄灭这一事件的将来光锥之内。同理，我们也不知道这一时刻发生在宇宙中更远地方的事：我们看到的从很远星系来的光是在几百万年之前发出的，在我们看到最远物体的情况下，光是在80亿年前发出的。这样当我们看宇宙时，我们是在看它的过去。
如果人们忽略引力效应，正如1905年爱因斯坦和彭加勒所做的那样，人们就得到了称为狭义相对论的理论。对于时空中的每一事件我们都可以做一个光锥（所有从该事件发出的光的可能轨迹的集合），由于在每一事件处在任一方向的光的速度都一样，所以所有光锥都是全等的，并朝着同一方向。这理论又告诉我们，没有东西走得比光更快。这意味着，通过空间和时间的任何物体的轨迹必须由一根落在它上面的每一事件的光锥之内的线来表示（图2.7）。
狭义相对论非常成功地解释了如下事实：对所有观察者而言，光速都是一样的（正如麦克尔逊——莫雷实验所展示的那样），并成功地描述了当物体以接近于光速运动时的行为。然而，它和牛顿引力理论不相协调。牛顿理论说，物体之间的吸引力依赖于它们之间的距离。这意味着，如果我们移动一个物体，另一物体所受的力就会立即改变。或换言之，引力效应必须以无限速度来传递，而不像狭义相对论所要求的那样，只能以等于或低于光速的速度来传递。爱因斯坦在1908年至1914年之间进行了多次不成功的尝试，企图去找一个和狭义相对论相协调的引力理论。1915年，他终于提出了今天我们称之为广义相对论的理论。
閱讀更多 聰哥記單詞 的文章
