編者按：2018年9月15—16日，第三屆生命與國學高峰論壇在湖北武漢召開。來自全世界十多個國家和地區的專家學者匯聚一堂，圍繞“傳統文化與軸心時代”的主題，為化解人類各種危機，走出時代困境探尋新出路。Arun Kumar Yadav應邀出席論壇，並發表主題演講。Arun Kumar Yadav是印度聯邦政府文化部直屬的新那爛陀大學巴利語系助理教授，貝拿勒斯印度大學巴利語和佛教研究系博士。現將其論文發佈於此，以饗讀者。
Life and Lifeology: A Buddhist Perspective
Dr.Arun Kumar Yadav
Assistant Professor,Department of Pali, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara
Dr.Arun Kumar Yadav在第三屆生命與國學高峰論壇發表主題演講
The concept of life is the most ancient one which is used since the beginning of life in this world. Whatever languages have been used in different countries to express this term, the expression has always been equally valuable and same. On one hand, for this very reason, all the political leaders, religious personalities and social workers have talked about the upliftment from the worldly affairs of life. But on the other hand, we often see that in several countries where life is considered of a great value, there is no hesitation to take those valuable lives into consideration. It is not only applicable to human beings but also to the entire visible or invisible species of this world. Modern science has proved that all the creatures are connected to each other and their get-togetherness create our ecosystem.
In order to address above mentioned area of concern, a new word is in practice these days, which is called Lifeology. Lifeology is a modern term in which we study all forms of life - your life, my life, and our life. The factors which affect life and Lifeology have been discussed below along with their solutions from the Buddhist point of view:
The theory of life: We can divide the theory of life on the basis of Science and Religion, but they are almost same. According to the Science, life is a biological phenomenon between birth and death while, according to Religion, it is a chain between birth and death having several social norms. Lord Buddha has well described such a theory and stages of life in his Paṭiccasamuppāda theory (Oldenberg, p.1) which is a complete theory or circle of life and again he describes the origin and development of life in a very scientific way in Aggañña Sutta (Carpenter 1911, pp. 80—98).
Basic needs of Life:Three things: Bread, Cloth and House, have a very important place in the life of a person as a minimum requirement for a prosperous life. If a person receives these three things, the chance of conflicts decreases in the worldly life.
Factors affecting life: The process from birth to death has been called life. In the midst of this process, there are many factors that affect life. In fact, financially, social, politically and naturally elements are major constituents which affect our life at the most. If we look at the present scenario of the world, we will certainly find that every country in the world is associated with other country on the basis of above mentioned reasons, which are major causes of the conflicting axioms.
I.Economical Imbalance: In any country, there is a need of equality on economic basis. Unless there is economic equality, there will be dissatisfaction in people's mind, and dissatisfaction then becomes the natural cause of misery in the life in society and country. Here it is also truth that the ideal situation of equality is very difficult to gain but at least we can try to achieve the middle path. If this situation is seen in the context of two countries, then economic inequalities will be a cause of dispute. Similarly, we get similar status at the social level too, one person competes with other or one nation does the same with other for the supremacy which create regional imbalance.
II.Hunger: Without clothes and houses, life is possible to some extent, but life without food is not feasible. At one place in Khuddaka Nikāya (Smith 1915, p.2), Lord Buddha has asked one question to his monk son Rahul that all the living beings in this world are incumbent on what? In response to this query, Rahul answered that all the living beings in this world are incumbent of food/diet. The consequence of not getting this food is called hunger that is why while stating the importance of food Buddha has said in one place in Dhammapada:"Jighachhā Paramā Rogā", which means the biggest disease in the world is hunger (Sarao 2009, p. 250). Now this hunger could be the hunger of human body and the hunger of other things in the form of desires (mental). There is a medicine for the mental desire which is called Vipassanā meditation but there is no medicine to cure hunger of the human body. As per the laws of nature, one is bound to get hungry after a fixed period and the remedies for which will be nothing but food. There is no medicine in this world which can cure this hunger permanently. It is due to this very reason Buddha has called 'hunger' as the world's greatest disease and this corporeal hunger is very serious concern for the world because, according to the world hunger index-2017, 52 out of 119 countries have the level of hunger that is serious, alarming or extra alarming (GHI, p.16) and also 1 person out of 9 person is suffering from hunger in this world.
III.Terrorism: Human species of this world is facing sever threat from terrorism since several decades. According to the current researches of Global Terror Index- 2017 total 11,072 terror attacks have been reported, 25673 human have been killed during 2016 (GTI 2017, p.2). However, while the global numbers of deaths and attacks improved in 2016, other trends are disturbing. More countries experienced at least one death from terrorism. This is more than at any time in the past 17 years and reflects an increase from 65 countries in 2015 to 77 in 2016. Two out of every three countries in the Index, or 106 nations, experienced at least one terrorist attack (GTI 2017, p.4). In this type of situation, terrorism can be cured with compassion and noble talks only. As we have reference of the one of the bandits named Aṅgulimāla from the time of Buddha that lived in the forest of Kosala. Everyone felt terror in him and thus nobody dared to travel from the route he was expected to be found on. After the compassionate discussion with Buddha, he left all those works and became his famous disciple.
Ⅳ.Natural Disaster: This is an established fact that "life"is totally dependent on relations of human beings (as well as animals) and nature. This relation that plays a crucial role to establish universal harmony is very important. It is also a universal truth that nature does not discriminate with anyone. All kinds of discrimination are created by human beings. They create boundaries, divided lands, rivers, mountains etc. and fight for natural resources for own selfish benefits. Since evolution of life till now, we human beings have always exploited nature for our own benefits. We destroyed several forests, demolished mountains, and polluted rivers, ground water and quality of air. According to the current researches of International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) total 6311 disasters have been reported; 839,343 human have been killed and 1,935,585 persons were affected by different types of disasters during 2005—2014 (World Disaster Report 2015, p. 216- 218). On the other hand, according to the report (IUCN-2017, pg. 42) of International Union for Conversation of Nature and Natural Recourses (IUCN), 8,417 species were in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, including plants (2,443 species), invertebrates (2,930 species), marine fishes (351 species), freshwater fishes (115 species), mammals (649 species), reptiles (1,175 species) and birds (238 species). On the basis of the above mentioned census, we can surmise that the greed of human beings is a major cause for the imbalance of the whole ecosystem and life.
Dr.Arun Kumar Yadav在第三屆生命與國學高峰論壇發表主題演講
In this way, we can surmise that our life is deeply connected with above mentioned problems as well as other types of external problems. In fact, we always try to make ourselves happy in the external world, but the truth is that the path of the external world is a path that leads to nothing but to a disastrous route. If we talk about other views of Indian Philosophy, most of them talk about happiness, but Buddha is the only person who began his talks from "Dukkha" i.e. suffering. Here, Buddha's approach appears to be a negative one, but if we really understand that whatever is left after the 'disease' is actually called happiness. That is why Buddha caught the root cause of happiness and told his pupils about the best path being the path of the inner world. Buddha has called this inner journey as Ārya Mārga (Noble Path). Here the meaning of "Ārya" is not to stand for any caste, creed, to stand for noble or superior. Buddha has praised his Ārya Mārga with the following words in the Dhammapada (Sarao 2009,p. 335):
Maggān'aṭṭhaṅgikoseṭṭho, saccānaṁcaturopadā
Virāgoseṭṭhodhammānaṁ, dvipadānañcacakkhumā.
The eightfold is the best of paths; of truths the four sayings; of mental states absence of passion; and of two-footed the one with eyes.
So here, Buddha said that eightfold path is best path to lead your life though it is very useful to lead any country. A person, who is conscious and alert, can understand the noble fold path properly and can learn how to lead a better life. These are the following noble eightfold path, which could lead a person or a nation on the path of prosperity and happiness:1
1.Sammā Diṭṭhi (Right View): Everyone has his/her own ideas to see life in his/her own way but right view means to keep the vision free from all forms of wrong-views and biasness. At one place, Venerable Kaccānagotta
asks Buddha about the right kind of view, and then Buddha answers that right view arises when one sees the origin and thus experiences the cessation of the world which is free of attachments (Feer 1975, pp. 16—17). By generating this kind of view, there will be a considerable positive change happening in human behaviour as well as consequently reflecting in society and the world.
2.Sammā Saṅkappa (Right Intention): Pledge for mental and moral development of oneself as well of the society is called Sammā Saṅkappo. By taking this kind of vow, there will be a positive change happening in society and the world.
3.Sammā Vācā (Right Speech): Generally, we see that all the major causes in this world start because of verbal actions, therefore, Buddha talks about the right kind of speech. Here, this means to get freed from all forms of vocal misdeeds. Meaning thereby is that a man or a country should speak anything without having any wrong-views and biasness.
4.Sammā Kammanta (Right Action): Indulging oneself in the useless action is called wrong action. Thus, a man and a nation should reform right action. Right actions promote moral, honour, and peaceful conduct. It admonishes us that we should abstain ourselves from destroying life, from stealing anything; from dishonest dealings, and from illegitimate carnal intercourse. These types of action also help others and a nation to lead a peaceful and honourable life in the right way.
5.Sammā Ājiva (Right Livelihood): Sammā Ājivo means right-livelihood. In fact, no one (or very less) is satisfied with his/her own life in this world. Due to dissatisfaction, at one place Buddha said "Atuṭṭhi taṇhā dāso" which means dissatisfaction being the slave of desires. Therefore, a satisfied man or a nation is the actual basis for the peace of world. A man or nation should indulge itself in the right-livelihood because nature has distributed equal opportunity in this world for life. So there is no need to interfere in the life of other living being or in the matter of other countries for our own livelihood.
6.Sammā Vāyāma(Right Effort):Right effortis the energetic will (1) to prevent our mind and country from evil and unwholesome states which seem to arise, and (2) to get rid of such evil and unwholesome states that have already arisen within a man or country, and also (3) to produce, to cause to arise, good and wholesome states of mind not yet arisen within a man or country, and (4) to develop and bring to perfection, the good and wholesome states of mind already present in a man or in a nation. These types of positive efforts will take the world in the stage of peaceful and sustainable world.
7.Sammā Sati: Right mindfulness is to be diligently aware, mindful, and attentive with regard to one's own feelings/ nation's feelings as well as the state of world affairs.
8.Sammā Samādhi: The last and the foremost factor of the mental discipline is the right concentration. This is the final and most advanced stage in which a man or a ruler of a country can take right decisions in favour his/her own country as well as for the whole mankind.
Conclusion:
It is quite natural to see that the entire world is now being governed by some certain rules and regulations. If by any means we become the root cause of bringing disharmony in the already existing norms, we are bound to encounter complexities of myriad kinds. Nowadays human beings are facing so many different set of problems like extreme misuse of natural resources that cause in the multiplication of population, disproportionate destitution, cataclysmic political spheres and religious unrest etc. In this regards, thoughts and teachings of Buddha can play a key role to resolve the existing problems. For this purpose, theories of the Middle Path and the practice of "Mettā" and "Vipassanā Meditation" would be a great assistance to the world at large. We just have to teach and practice the language of silence. Because languages always separate but the silence having no language does not divide society. Therefore, it can be understood that language of silence is the only alternative which has potential to unite the seemingly disintegrated world in one garland. So, we should try that more and more people get associated with Meditation practice but not in the name of religion, but in the name knowing who actually we are. We also have to practice "Mettā" in our daily life which is the name of extreme compassion towards all types of creatures full of conflicts and agitation. We should not forget that "Mettā" is a great concept for the world from a consciousness like Buddha's. Buddhism has introduced the new word "Mettā" to denote this extreme compassion. But the object of one's Mettā should not be directed only to human beings but to all living beings. This "Mettā" concept is so pious in its algorithm that Buddha himself decided to take next arrival as "Maitreya Buddha". It means the world will be in such type of extreme condition where "Mettā" and "Middle Path" will be the essential and the most useful tool for the world. And to achieve Concord, Buddha shall be the way.
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